Prof. Avv. Marco Balboni
Relazione del Prof. Balboni per il seminario di formazione forense “Gli strumenti internazionali per la tutela delle vittime di violenza e discriminazioni di genere”, organizzato da Giuristi Democratici e D.i.RE. Bologna, 14.01.2010.
1. L'approccio tradizionale in materia di protezione Women's
The first conventions that are affecting the status of women in the first half of the twentieth century.
They consider women only as passive object of particular protection
because of its inherent weaknesses (see, for example, the Convention for the Suppression of Trafficking in Women and Children, Geneva, 1921).
The advent of the United Nations and human rights approach to change this. Women are no longer regarded as passive objects of protection but are holders of rights. There are some limits in light of the doctrinal reflection: the development of human rights is the result of a decision almost exclusively male. The standard di tutela e il contenuto dei diritti previsti riflette quindi una visione essenzialmente antropocentrica; la donna è considerata in quanto tale quasi esclusivamente nel suo ruolo di moglie e madre
(cfr., artt. 16 e 25.2. Dichiarazione universale dei diritti dell'uomo);
la famiglia è considerata come unità naturale e fondamentale della società (art. 16.3.Dichiarazione universale) che deve essere protetta il più possibile anche dagli interventi dello Stato.
Ne deriva l'esclusione dell'intervento pubblico in una delle aree più sensibili per i diritti umani delle donne. Cfr., tuttavia, Convenzione sui diritti politici della donna, New York, 1953; Convenzione sulla nazionalità delle donne coniugate, New York, 1957; Convention on consent, the minimum age to register marriage, New York, 1962.
2. The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women - CEDAW)
The CEDAW was adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1979 and came into force in 1981. Italy has ratified and implemented the Convention in 1985.
content.
essential purpose of the Convention shall ensure to women, in equal measure, the rights and opportunities to people (equality in law and fact). The Convention identifies
The general concept of discrimination and a range of general and special measures that States must adopt.
Concept of discrimination
discrimination covers any distinction, exclusion or restriction based on sex which has the effect or purpose of impairing or nullifying the recognition, enjoyment or exercise by women, irrespective of their status bed, on the basis of equality between men and women, human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any other field (Article 1).
Compulsory measures for the States.
Member States are obliged to take measures (legislative or otherwise) that can be distinguished for the content, target groups and areas.
Content:
measures for the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (the introduction of the principle of non-discrimination, prohibition of discrimination, if necessary by means of criminal sanctions, repeal of provisions to the contrary, eec.: Art. 2);
measures to ensure the development and advancement of women in order to ensure equality with men (measures posivite: art. 3);
special discriminatory measures on a temporary basis to remove the inequalities that (affirmative action: art. 4);
measures aimed at changing the socio-cultural patterns and attitudes (prejudice, stereotypes: art. 5);
measures to suppress trafficking and exploitation of prostitution (Article 6). The binding of this provision with the rest of the Convention is controversial. The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, however, extended the general prohibition of discrimination based on sex in all acts of violence based on gender (General Recommendation No. 19/1992). There is therefore a link between discrimination against women and certain acts that affect women or mainly women
as such.
Recipients.
are concerned:
relations between women and public authorities;
relations between women and any person, organization or enterprise, non-
government or private sector (education, and clerical work, health, the entire field of economic and social articles. 10 - 13), including other States and within family relationships (16).
Fields specifically considered:
justice (Article 2.c.) politics (Articles 7 and 8), education (Article 10); employment and work (Article 11);
health (art. 12 ) social security (art. 13), women working in agriculture (Article 14);
all areas of civil life and law (equality of citizens before the law: art. 15), family (Article 16) .
control on compliance with the Convention.
Setting Procedure. The Convention was ratified and enforced by Italy. It therefore enjoys art. Article 117 of the Constitution and the interpretation given. 117 of the Constitution by the Constitutional Court judgments October 24, 2007, No 348 and 349. It may therefore be invoked directly before national courts and serve as a parameter intervening in the judgments of constitutionality to the contrary
art. 117 in case of domestic measures against it.
international level.
The Convention provides for the establishment of a Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women
(Article 17) with the following skills:
monitor compliance with the Convention through the system of relationships or regular reporting by Member contractors (Art. 18);
receive complaints (communications) from individual claimants (Optional Protocol to CEDAW, 1999).
Limits.
The Convention has received a large number of ratifications, but with a very wide number of reservations, hardly compatible with the object and purpose of the treaty.
The Convention aims to guarantee women the same rights enjoyed by men, but not groped to re-establish the logic of human rights with a view that also reflects the views of women. As human rights have been conceived in exclusively male perspective, it follows that the woman does not enjoy full equality in fact (eg prohibition of torture,
libertà di espressione).
Limiti del meccanismo di controllo.
3. Diritto comunitario.
Relazione del Prof. Balboni per il seminario di formazione forense “Gli strumenti internazionali per la tutela delle vittime di violenza e discriminazioni di genere”, organizzato da Giuristi Democratici e D.i.RE. Bologna, 14.01.2010.
1. L'approccio tradizionale in materia di protezione Women's
The first conventions that are affecting the status of women in the first half of the twentieth century.
They consider women only as passive object of particular protection
because of its inherent weaknesses (see, for example, the Convention for the Suppression of Trafficking in Women and Children, Geneva, 1921).
The advent of the United Nations and human rights approach to change this. Women are no longer regarded as passive objects of protection but are holders of rights. There are some limits in light of the doctrinal reflection: the development of human rights is the result of a decision almost exclusively male. The standard di tutela e il contenuto dei diritti previsti riflette quindi una visione essenzialmente antropocentrica; la donna è considerata in quanto tale quasi esclusivamente nel suo ruolo di moglie e madre
(cfr., artt. 16 e 25.2. Dichiarazione universale dei diritti dell'uomo);
la famiglia è considerata come unità naturale e fondamentale della società (art. 16.3.Dichiarazione universale) che deve essere protetta il più possibile anche dagli interventi dello Stato.
Ne deriva l'esclusione dell'intervento pubblico in una delle aree più sensibili per i diritti umani delle donne. Cfr., tuttavia, Convenzione sui diritti politici della donna, New York, 1953; Convenzione sulla nazionalità delle donne coniugate, New York, 1957; Convention on consent, the minimum age to register marriage, New York, 1962.
2. The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women - CEDAW)
The CEDAW was adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1979 and came into force in 1981. Italy has ratified and implemented the Convention in 1985.
content.
essential purpose of the Convention shall ensure to women, in equal measure, the rights and opportunities to people (equality in law and fact). The Convention identifies
The general concept of discrimination and a range of general and special measures that States must adopt.
Concept of discrimination
discrimination covers any distinction, exclusion or restriction based on sex which has the effect or purpose of impairing or nullifying the recognition, enjoyment or exercise by women, irrespective of their status bed, on the basis of equality between men and women, human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any other field (Article 1).
Compulsory measures for the States.
Member States are obliged to take measures (legislative or otherwise) that can be distinguished for the content, target groups and areas.
Content:
measures for the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (the introduction of the principle of non-discrimination, prohibition of discrimination, if necessary by means of criminal sanctions, repeal of provisions to the contrary, eec.: Art. 2);
measures to ensure the development and advancement of women in order to ensure equality with men (measures posivite: art. 3);
special discriminatory measures on a temporary basis to remove the inequalities that (affirmative action: art. 4);
measures aimed at changing the socio-cultural patterns and attitudes (prejudice, stereotypes: art. 5);
measures to suppress trafficking and exploitation of prostitution (Article 6). The binding of this provision with the rest of the Convention is controversial. The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, however, extended the general prohibition of discrimination based on sex in all acts of violence based on gender (General Recommendation No. 19/1992). There is therefore a link between discrimination against women and certain acts that affect women or mainly women
as such.
Recipients.
are concerned:
relations between women and public authorities;
relations between women and any person, organization or enterprise, non-
government or private sector (education, and clerical work, health, the entire field of economic and social articles. 10 - 13), including other States and within family relationships (16).
Fields specifically considered:
justice (Article 2.c.) politics (Articles 7 and 8), education (Article 10); employment and work (Article 11);
health (art. 12 ) social security (art. 13), women working in agriculture (Article 14);
all areas of civil life and law (equality of citizens before the law: art. 15), family (Article 16) .
control on compliance with the Convention.
Setting Procedure. The Convention was ratified and enforced by Italy. It therefore enjoys art. Article 117 of the Constitution and the interpretation given. 117 of the Constitution by the Constitutional Court judgments October 24, 2007, No 348 and 349. It may therefore be invoked directly before national courts and serve as a parameter intervening in the judgments of constitutionality to the contrary
art. 117 in case of domestic measures against it.
international level.
The Convention provides for the establishment of a Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women
(Article 17) with the following skills:
monitor compliance with the Convention through the system of relationships or regular reporting by Member contractors (Art. 18);
receive complaints (communications) from individual claimants (Optional Protocol to CEDAW, 1999).
Limits.
The Convention has received a large number of ratifications, but with a very wide number of reservations, hardly compatible with the object and purpose of the treaty.
The Convention aims to guarantee women the same rights enjoyed by men, but not groped to re-establish the logic of human rights with a view that also reflects the views of women. As human rights have been conceived in exclusively male perspective, it follows that the woman does not enjoy full equality in fact (eg prohibition of torture,
libertà di espressione).
Limiti del meccanismo di controllo.
3. Diritto comunitario.
Il diritto comunitario si occupa della donna prevalentemente sotto il profilo della non discriminazione. Non sono esclusi tuttavia altri ambiti.
Il principio di non discriminazione viene in rilievo sotto due profili:
- come divieto generale di discriminazione nei rapporti tra cittadini e autorità dell'Unione europea;
- come fonte di diritti e obblighi per gli Stati membri.
La differenza è importante perché mentre nel primo caso ha portata generale e riguarda tutto il settore di attività dell'Unione, nel secondo caso ha una portata settoriale, limitata ai settori in cui l'Unione ha ricevuto una specifica competenza in materia.
Divieto generale di discriminazione: cfr., artt. 6 trattato di Lisbona e Carta dei diritti fondamentali dell'Unione europea, artt. 21 (principio di non discriminazione) e 23 (parità di trattamento).
Fonte di diritti e obblighi per gli Stati. Occorre distinguere la portata dell'obbligo e i settori in cui si applica.
Portata dell'obbligo.
La nozione di discriminazione copre le discriminazioni dirette e indirette.
La nozione di sesso non è data dai trattati istitutivi, ma è stata oggetto di interpretazione della Corte di giustizia. Secondo tale giurisprudenza non va intesa in senso biologico, ma ricostruita alla light of social, cultural and psicoligici. It includes the change of gender but not sexual orientation (Court of Justice in Case C-111/01, if KB). Positive action
The exception to equal treatment. Are allowed provided they do not rely on automatic, but allow a specific evaluation: they are excluded then the measures that make the result directly without removing the obstacle, while they admitted the measures that remove the obstacle that prevents the same starting point (Court of Justice in Case C-450/93, Kalanke case). Areas of application
employment and occupation: art. 157 Lisbon Treaty, Directive 2006/54/EC del Parlamento europeo e del Consiglio riguardante l'attuazione del principio delle pari opportunità e della parità di trattamento fra uomini e donne in materia di occupazione e impiego.
Accesso beni e servizi: direttiva 2004/113/CE del Consiglio riguardante l'attuazione del principio della parità di trattamento fra uomini e donne in materia di accesso ai beni e servizi.
Altre misure
Congedo parentale: direttiva 96/34/CE del Consiglio del 3 giugno 1996 concernente
l'accordo quadro sul congedo parentale concluso dall'UNICE, dal CEEP e dalla CES; direttiva 97/75/CE del Consiglio del 15 dicembre 1997 che modifica ed estende la direttiva 96/34/CE concernente l'accordo quadro sul congedo parentale concluded by UNICE, CEEP and the ETUC to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
Motherhood: Council Directive 92/85/EEC of 19 October 1992 on the implementation of measures to encourage improvements in the safety and health at work of pregnant workers who have recently given birth or are breastfeeding (tenth individual Directive within the meaning of Article 16, paragraph 1 of Directive 89/391/EEC)
Bibliography
Degani, Human rights and violence against women: recent developments in the international protection , Padova, 2000
Favilli, Non-discrimination in the European Union, Florence, 2008
Maffei, The status of women between protection and prohibition of discrimination , in The International Protection of Human Rights (ed.) L. Pineschi, Milan, 2006, p. 173 ff.
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